Concatenation

We can concatenate (i.e., combine) numbers or strings with c():

c(2, 4, -1)

## [1]  2  4 -1

c(1, 5 / 6, 2^3, -0.05)

## [1]  1.0000000  0.8333333  8.0000000 -0.0500000

Note that by default R displays 7 decimals. You can modify it with options(digits = 2) (two decimals).

It is also possible to create a sequence of consecutive integers:

1:10

##  [1]  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10

# is the same than
c(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)

##  [1]  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10

# or
c(1:10)

##  [1]  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10

seq() and rep()

seq() allows to make a vector defined by a sequence. You can either choose the increment:

seq(from = 2, to = 5, by = 0.5)

## [1] 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

or its length:

seq(from = 2, to = 5, length.out = 7)

## [1] 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0

On the other hand, rep() creates a vector which is the repetition of numbers or strings:

rep(1, times = 3)

## [1] 1 1 1

rep(c("A", "B", "C"), times = c(3, 1, 2))

## [1] "A" "A" "A" "B" "C" "C"

You can also create a vector which is the repetition of numbers and strings:

rep(c("A", 2, "C"), times = c(3, 1, 2))

## [1] "A" "A" "A" "2" "C" "C"

but in that case, the number 2 will be considered as a string too (and not as a numeric) since there is at least one string in the vector.

Assignment

There are three ways to assign an object in R:

1. <-
2. =
3. assign()

# 1st method
x <- c(2.1, 5, -4, 1, 5)
x

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0  5.0

# 2nd method
x2 = c(2.1, 5, -4, 1, 5)
x2

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0  5.0

# 3rd method (much less common)
assign("x3", c(2.1, 5, -4, 1, 5))
x3

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0  5.0

You can also assign a vector to another vector, for example:

y <- c(x, 10, 1 / 4)
y

## [1]  2.10  5.00 -4.00  1.00  5.00 10.00  0.25

Elements of a vector

We can select one or several elements of a vector by specifying its position between square brackets:

# select one element
x[3]

## [1] -4

# select more than one element with c()
x[c(1, 3, 4)]

## [1]  2.1 -4.0  1.0

Note that in R the numbering of the indices starts at 1 (and no 0 like other programming languages) so x[1] gives the first element of the vector x.

We can also use booleans (i.e., TRUE or FALSE) to select some elements of a vector. This method selects only the elements corresponding to TRUE:

x[c(TRUE, FALSE, TRUE, TRUE, FALSE)]

## [1]  2.1 -4.0  1.0

Or we can give the elements to withdraw:

x[-c(2, 4)]

## [1]  2.1 -4.0  5.0

Type and length

The main types of a vector are numeric, logical and character. For more details on each type, see the different data types in R.

class() gives the vector type:

x <- c(2.1, 5, -4, 1, 5, 0)
class(x)

## [1] "numeric"

y <- c(x, "Hello")
class(y)

## [1] "character"

As you can see above, the class of a vector will be numeric only if all of its elements are numeric. As soon as one element is a character, the class of the vector will be a character.

z <- c(TRUE, FALSE, FALSE)
class(z)

## [1] "logical"

length() gives the length of a vector:

length(x)

## [1] 6

So to select the last element of a vector (in a dynamic way), we can use a combination of length() and []:

x[length(x)]

## [1] 0

Finding the vector type

We can find the type of a vector with the family of is.type functions:

is.numeric(x)

## [1] TRUE

is.logical(x)

## [1] FALSE

is.character(x)

## [1] FALSE

Or in a more generic way with the is() function:

is(x)

## [1] "numeric" "vector"

Modifications of type and length

We can change the type of a vector with the as.numeric(), as.logical() and as.character() functions:

x_character <- as.character(x)
x_character

## [1] "2.1" "5"   "-4"  "1"   "5"   "0"

is.character(x_character)

## [1] TRUE

x_logical <- as.logical(x)
x_logical

## [1]  TRUE  TRUE  TRUE  TRUE  TRUE FALSE

is.logical(x_logical)

## [1] TRUE

It is also possible to change its length:

length(x) <- 4
x

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0

As you can see, the first elements of the vector are conserved while all others are removed. In this case, the first 4 since we specified a length of 4.

Numerical operators

The basic numerical operators such as +, -, *, / and ^ can be applied to vectors:

x <- c(2.1, 5, -4, 1)
y <- c(0, -7, 1, 1 / 4)

x + y

## [1]  2.10 -2.00 -3.00  1.25

x * y

## [1]   0.00 -35.00  -4.00   0.25

x^y

## [1]  1.00e+00  1.28e-05 -4.00e+00  1.00e+00

It is also possible to compute the minimum, maximum, sum, product, cumulative sum and cumulative product of a vector:

min(x)

## [1] -4

max(x)

## [1] 5

sum(x)

## [1] 4.1

prod(x)

## [1] -42

cumsum(x)

## [1] 2.1 7.1 3.1 4.1

cumprod(x)

## [1]   2.1  10.5 -42.0 -42.0

The following mathematical operations can be applied too:

• sqrt() (square root)
• cos() (cosine)
• sin() (sine)
• tan() (tangent)
• log() (logarithm)
• log10() (base 10 logarithm)
• exp() (exponential)
• abs() (absolute value)

cos(x)

## [1] -0.5048461  0.2836622 -0.6536436  0.5403023

exp(x)

## [1]   8.16616991 148.41315910   0.01831564   2.71828183

If you need to round a number, you can use the round(), floor() and ceiling() functions:

round(cos(x), digits = 3) # round to 3 decimals

## [1] -0.505  0.284 -0.654  0.540

floor(cos(x)) # largest integer not greater than x

## [1] -1  0 -1  0

ceiling(cos(x)) # smallest integer not less than x

## [1] 0 1 0 1

Logical operators

The most common logical operators in R are:

• Negation: !
• Comparisons: <, <=, >=, >, == (equality), != (difference)
• And: &
• Or: |

x

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0

x <= c(1, 6, 3, 4)

## [1] FALSE  TRUE  TRUE  TRUE

x <= 1

## [1] FALSE FALSE  TRUE  TRUE

(x == 1 | x > 4)

## [1] FALSE  TRUE FALSE  TRUE

!(x == 1 | x > 4)

## [1]  TRUE FALSE  TRUE FALSE

all() and any()

As the names suggest, all() return TRUE if conditions are met for all elements, whereas any() returns TRUE if conditions are met for any of the element of a vector:

x

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0

x <= 1

## [1] FALSE FALSE  TRUE  TRUE

all(x <= 1)

## [1] FALSE

any(x <= 1)

## [1] TRUE

Operations on character strings vector

You can paste two vectors (or more) together:

code <- paste(c("BE", "BE", "FR", "EN", "BE"), 1:5, sep = "/")
code

## [1] "BE/1" "BE/2" "FR/3" "EN/4" "BE/5"

The argument sep stands for separator and allows to specify the character(s) or symbol(s) used to separate each character strings.

If you do not want to specify a separator, you can use sep = "" or the paste0() function:

paste(c("BE", "BE", "FR", "EN", "BE"), 1:5, sep = "")

## [1] "BE1" "BE2" "FR3" "EN4" "BE5"

paste0(c("BE", "BE", "FR", "EN", "BE"), 1:5)

## [1] "BE1" "BE2" "FR3" "EN4" "BE5"

To find the positions of the elements containing a given string, use the grep() function:

grep("BE", code)

## [1] 1 2 5

To extract a character string based on the beginning and the end positions, we can use the substr() function:

# extract characters 1 to 3
substr(code,
  start = 1,
  stop = 3
)

## [1] "BE/" "BE/" "FR/" "EN/" "BE/"

Replace a character string by another one if it exists in the vector by using the sub() function:

sub(
  pattern = "BE", # find BE
  replacement = "BEL", # replace it with BEL
  code
)

## [1] "BEL/1" "BEL/2" "FR/3"  "EN/4"  "BEL/5"

Split a character string based on a specific symbol with the strsplit() function:

strsplit(c("Rafael Nadal", "Roger Federer", "Novak Djokovic"),
  split = " "
)

## [[1]]
## [1] "Rafael" "Nadal" 
## 
## [[2]]
## [1] "Roger"   "Federer"
## 
## [[3]]
## [1] "Novak"    "Djokovic"

strsplit(code,
  split = "/"
)

## [[1]]
## [1] "BE" "1" 
## 
## [[2]]
## [1] "BE" "2" 
## 
## [[3]]
## [1] "FR" "3" 
## 
## [[4]]
## [1] "EN" "4" 
## 
## [[5]]
## [1] "BE" "5"

To transform a character vector to uppercase and lowercase:

toupper(c("Rafael Nadal", "Roger Federer", "Novak Djokovic"))

## [1] "RAFAEL NADAL"   "ROGER FEDERER"  "NOVAK DJOKOVIC"

tolower(c("Rafael Nadal", "Roger Federer", "Novak Djokovic"))

## [1] "rafael nadal"   "roger federer"  "novak djokovic"

Orders and vectors

We can sort the elements of a vector from smallest to largest, or from largest to smallest:

x <- c(2.1, 5, -4, 1, 1)
sort(x) # smallest to largest

## [1] -4.0  1.0  1.0  2.1  5.0

sort(x, decreasing = TRUE) # largest to smallest

## [1]  5.0  2.1  1.0  1.0 -4.0

order() gives the permutation to apply to the vector in order to sort its elements:

order(x)

## [1] 3 4 5 1 2

As you can see, the third element of the vector is the smallest and the second element is the largest. This is indicated by the 3 at the beginning of the output, and the 2 at the end of the output.

Like sort() the decreasing = TRUE argument can also be added:

order(x, decreasing = TRUE)

## [1] 2 1 4 5 3

In this case, the 2 in the output indicates that the second element of the vector is the largest, while the 3 indicates that the third element is the smallest.

rank() gives the ranks of the elements:

rank(x)

## [1] 4.0 5.0 1.0 2.5 2.5

The two last elements of the vector have a rank of 2.5 because they are equal and they come after the first but before the fourth rank.

We can also reverse the elements (from the last one to the first one):

x

## [1]  2.1  5.0 -4.0  1.0  1.0

rev(x)

## [1]  1.0  1.0 -4.0  5.0  2.1

Creating factors

We create factors with the factor() function (do not forget the c()):

f1 <- factor(c("T1", "T3", "T1", "T2"))
f1

## [1] T1 T3 T1 T2
## Levels: T1 T2 T3

We can of course create a factor from an existing vector:

v <- c(1, 1, 0, 1, 0)
v2 <- factor(v,
  levels = c(0, 1),
  labels = c("bad", "good")
)
v2

## [1] good good bad  good bad 
## Levels: bad good

We can also specify that the levels are ordered by adding the ordered = TRUE argument:

v2 <- factor(v,
  levels = c(0, 1),
  labels = c("bad", "good"),
  ordered = TRUE
)
v2

## [1] good good bad  good bad 
## Levels: bad < good

Note that the order of the levels will follow the order that is specified in the labels argument.

Properties

To know the names of the levels:

levels(f1)

## [1] "T1" "T2" "T3"

For the number of levels:

nlevels(f1)

## [1] 3

In R, the first level is always the reference level. This reference level can be modified with relevel():

relevel(f1, ref = "T3")

## [1] T1 T3 T1 T2
## Levels: T3 T1 T2

You see that “T3” is now the first and thus the reference level. Changing the reference level has an impact on the order they are displayed or treated in statistical analyses. Compare, for instance, boxplots with different reference levels.

Handling

To know the frequencies for each level:

table(f1)

## f1
## T1 T2 T3 
##  2  1  1

# or
summary(f1)

## T1 T2 T3 
##  2  1  1

Note that the relative frequencies (i.e., the proportions) can be found with the combination of prop.table() and table() or summary():

prop.table(table(f1))

## f1
##   T1   T2   T3 
## 0.50 0.25 0.25

# or
prop.table(summary(f1))

##   T1   T2   T3 
## 0.50 0.25 0.25

Remember that a factor is coded in R as a numeric vector even though it looks like a character one. We can transform a factor into its numerical equivalent with the as.numeric() function:

f1

## [1] T1 T3 T1 T2
## Levels: T1 T2 T3

as.numeric(f1)

## [1] 1 3 1 2

And a numeric vector can be transformed into a factor with the as.factor() or factor() function:

num <- 1:4
fac <- as.factor(num)
fac

## [1] 1 2 3 4
## Levels: 1 2 3 4

fac2 <- factor(num)
fac2

## [1] 1 2 3 4
## Levels: 1 2 3 4

The advantage of factor() is that it is possible to specify a name for each level:

fac2 <- factor(num,
  labels = c("bad", "neutral", "good", "very good")
)
fac2

## [1] bad       neutral   good      very good
## Levels: bad neutral good very good

Creating lists

The function list() allows to create lists:

tahiti <- list(
  plane = c("Airbus", "Boeing"),
  departure = c("Brussels", "Milan", "Paris"),
  duration = c(15, 11, 14)
)
tahiti

## $plane
## [1] "Airbus" "Boeing"
## 
## $departure
## [1] "Brussels" "Milan"    "Paris"   
## 
## $duration
## [1] 15 11 14

Handling

There are several methods to extract elements from a list:

tahiti$departure

## [1] "Brussels" "Milan"    "Paris"

# or
tahiti$de

## [1] "Brussels" "Milan"    "Paris"

# or
tahiti[[2]]

## [1] "Brussels" "Milan"    "Paris"

# or
tahiti[["departure"]]

## [1] "Brussels" "Milan"    "Paris"

tahiti[[2]][c(1, 2)]

## [1] "Brussels" "Milan"

To transform a list into a vector:

v <- unlist(tahiti)
v

##     plane1     plane2 departure1 departure2 departure3  duration1  duration2 
##   "Airbus"   "Boeing" "Brussels"    "Milan"    "Paris"       "15"       "11" 
##  duration3 
##       "14"

is.vector(v)

## [1] TRUE

Getting details on an object

attributes() gives the names of the elements (it can be used on every R object):

attributes(tahiti)

## $names
## [1] "plane"     "departure" "duration"

str() gives a short description about the elements (it can also be used on every R object):

str(tahiti)

## List of 3
##  $ plane    : chr [1:2] "Airbus" "Boeing"
##  $ departure: chr [1:3] "Brussels" "Milan" "Paris"
##  $ duration : num [1:3] 15 11 14

Line and column names

Before manipulating a data frame, it is interesting to know the line and column names:

dimnames(dat)

## [[1]]
##  [1] "1"  "2"  "3"  "4"  "5"  "6"  "7"  "8"  "9"  "10" "11" "12" "13" "14" "15"
## [16] "16" "17" "18" "19" "20" "21" "22" "23" "24" "25" "26" "27" "28" "29" "30"
## [31] "31" "32" "33" "34" "35" "36" "37" "38" "39" "40" "41" "42" "43" "44" "45"
## [46] "46" "47" "48" "49" "50"
## 
## [[2]]
## [1] "speed" "dist"

To know only the column names:

names(dat)

## [1] "speed" "dist"

# or
colnames(dat)

## [1] "speed" "dist"

And to know only the row names:

rownames(dat)

##  [1] "1"  "2"  "3"  "4"  "5"  "6"  "7"  "8"  "9"  "10" "11" "12" "13" "14" "15"
## [16] "16" "17" "18" "19" "20" "21" "22" "23" "24" "25" "26" "27" "28" "29" "30"
## [31] "31" "32" "33" "34" "35" "36" "37" "38" "39" "40" "41" "42" "43" "44" "45"
## [46] "46" "47" "48" "49" "50"

Subset a data frame

head(dat, n = 10)

##    speed dist
## 1      4    2
## 2      4   10
## 3      7    4
## 4      7   22
## 5      8   16
## 6      9   10
## 7     10   18
## 8     10   26
## 9     10   34
## 10    11   17

tail(dat, n = 5)

##    speed dist
## 46    24   70
## 47    24   92
## 48    24   93
## 49    24  120
## 50    25   85

library(dplyr)
sample_n(dat, 4, replace = FALSE)

##   speed dist
## 1    24  120
## 2    19   46
## 3     4    2
## 4    15   26

dat[3, ]

dat[, 2]

dat[3, 2]

## [1] 4

dat[c(1:5, 10, 15), ] # do not forget c()

##    speed dist
## 1      4    2
## 2      4   10
## 3      7    4
## 4      7   22
## 5      8   16
## 10    11   17
## 15    12   28

dat[-c(5:45), ]

##    speed dist
## 1      4    2
## 2      4   10
## 3      7    4
## 4      7   22
## 46    24   70
## 47    24   92
## 48    24   93
## 49    24  120
## 50    25   85

dat[nrow(dat), ] # nrow() gives the number of rows

##    speed dist
## 50    25   85

mat <- matrix(c(-1, 2, 0, 3), ncol = 2, nrow = 2)
mat

##      [,1] [,2]
## [1,]   -1    0
## [2,]    2    3

mat[1, 2]

## [1] 0

dat$speed

##  [1]  4  4  7  7  8  9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15
## [26] 15 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 22 23 24 24 24 24 25

head(select(dat, speed))

##   speed
## 1     4
## 2     4
## 3     7
## 4     7
## 5     8
## 6     9

head(select(dat, -dist))

##   speed
## 1     4
## 2     4
## 3     7
## 4     7
## 5     8
## 6     9

subset(dat, dat$speed > 20)

##    speed dist
## 44    22   66
## 45    23   54
## 46    24   70
## 47    24   92
## 48    24   93
## 49    24  120
## 50    25   85

subset(dat, dat$dist <= 50 & dat$speed == 10)

##   speed dist
## 7    10   18
## 8    10   26
## 9    10   34

subset(dat, dat$dist < 20 | dat$speed == 10)

##    speed dist
## 1      4    2
## 2      4   10
## 3      7    4
## 5      8   16
## 6      9   10
## 7     10   18
## 8     10   26
## 9     10   34
## 10    11   17
## 12    12   14

tail(subset(dat, dat$speed != 24 & dat$dist != 120))

##    speed dist
## 41    20   52
## 42    20   56
## 43    20   64
## 44    22   66
## 45    23   54
## 50    25   85

split(dat, dat$factor_variable)

Create a new variable

Often, a data frame can be enhanced by creating new variables based on other variables from the initial data frame, or simply by adding a new variable manually.

In this example, we create two new variables; one being the speed times the distance (which we call speed_dist) and the other being a categorization of the speed (which we call speed_cat). We then display the first 6 observations of this new data frame with the 4 variables:

# create new variable speed_dist
dat$speed_dist <- dat$speed * dat$dist

# create new variable speed_cat
# with ifelse(): if dat$speed > 7, then speed_cat is "high speed", otherwise it is "low_speed"
dat$speed_cat <- factor(ifelse(dat$speed > 7,
  "high speed", "low speed"
))

# display first 6 observations
head(dat) # 6 is the default in head()

##   speed dist speed_dist  speed_cat
## 1     4    2          8  low speed
## 2     4   10         40  low speed
## 3     7    4         28  low speed
## 4     7   22        154  low speed
## 5     8   16        128 high speed
## 6     9   10         90 high speed

Note than in programming, a character string is generally surrounded by quotes (e.g., "character string") and R is not an exception.

dat$speed_quali <- cut(dat$speed,
  breaks = c(0, 12, 15, 19, 26), # cut points
  right = FALSE # closed on the left, open on the right
)

dat[c(1:2, 23:24, 49:50), ] # display some observations

##    speed dist speed_dist  speed_cat speed_quali
## 1      4    2          8  low speed      [0,12)
## 2      4   10         40  low speed      [0,12)
## 23    14   80       1120 high speed     [12,15)
## 24    15   20        300 high speed     [15,19)
## 49    24  120       2880 high speed     [19,26)
## 50    25   85       2125 high speed     [19,26)

dat$mean_score <- rowMeans(dat[, 1:3]) # variables speed, dist and speed_dist correspond to variables 1 to 3
dat$total_score <- rowSums(dat[, 1:3])

head(dat)

##   speed dist speed_dist  speed_cat speed_quali mean_score total_score
## 1     4    2          8  low speed      [0,12)   4.666667          14
## 2     4   10         40  low speed      [0,12)  18.000000          54
## 3     7    4         28  low speed      [0,12)  13.000000          39
## 4     7   22        154  low speed      [0,12)  61.000000         183
## 5     8   16        128 high speed      [0,12)  50.666667         152
## 6     9   10         90 high speed      [0,12)  36.333333         109

colMeans(dat[, 1:3])

##      speed       dist speed_dist 
##      15.40      42.98     769.64

colSums(dat[, 1:3])

##      speed       dist speed_dist 
##        770       2149      38482

mean(dat$speed)

## [1] 15.4

sum(dat$speed)

## [1] 770

Categorical variables and labels management

For categorical variables, it is a good practice to use the factor format and to name the different levels of the variables.

• for this example, let’s create another new variable called dist_cat based on the distance and then change its format from numeric to factor (while also specifying the labels of the levels):

# create new variable dist_cat
dat$dist_cat <- ifelse(dat$dist < 15,
  1, 2
)

# change from numeric to factor and specify the labels
dat$dist_cat <- factor(dat$dist_cat,
  levels = c(1, 2),
  labels = c("small distance", "big distance") # follow the order of the levels
)

head(dat)

##   speed dist speed_dist  speed_cat speed_quali mean_score total_score
## 1     4    2          8  low speed      [0,12)   4.666667          14
## 2     4   10         40  low speed      [0,12)  18.000000          54
## 3     7    4         28  low speed      [0,12)  13.000000          39
## 4     7   22        154  low speed      [0,12)  61.000000         183
## 5     8   16        128 high speed      [0,12)  50.666667         152
## 6     9   10         90 high speed      [0,12)  36.333333         109
##         dist_cat
## 1 small distance
## 2 small distance
## 3 small distance
## 4   big distance
## 5   big distance
## 6 small distance

• to check the format of a variable:

class(dat$dist_cat)

## [1] "factor"

# or
str(dat$dist_cat)

##  Factor w/ 2 levels "small distance",..: 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 ...

This will be sufficient if you need to format only a limited number of variables. However, if you need to do it for a large amount of categorical variables, it quickly becomes time consuming to write the same code many times. As you can imagine, it possible to format many variables without having to write the entire code for each variable one by one by using the within() command:

dat <- within(dat, {
  speed_cat <- factor(speed_cat, labels = c(
    "high speed",
    "low speed"
  ))
  dist_cat <- factor(dist_cat, labels = c(
    "small distance",
    "big distance"
  ))
})

head(dat)

##   speed dist speed_dist  speed_cat speed_quali mean_score total_score
## 1     4    2          8  low speed      [0,12)   4.666667          14
## 2     4   10         40  low speed      [0,12)  18.000000          54
## 3     7    4         28  low speed      [0,12)  13.000000          39
## 4     7   22        154  low speed      [0,12)  61.000000         183
## 5     8   16        128 high speed      [0,12)  50.666667         152
## 6     9   10         90 high speed      [0,12)  36.333333         109
##         dist_cat
## 1 small distance
## 2 small distance
## 3 small distance
## 4   big distance
## 5   big distance
## 6 small distance

str(dat)

## 'data.frame':	50 obs. of  8 variables:
##  $ speed      : num  4 4 7 7 8 9 10 10 10 11 ...
##  $ dist       : num  2 10 4 22 16 10 18 26 34 17 ...
##  $ speed_dist : num  8 40 28 154 128 90 180 260 340 187 ...
##  $ speed_cat  : Factor w/ 2 levels "high speed","low speed": 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
##  $ speed_quali: Factor w/ 4 levels "[0,12)","[12,15)",..: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
##  $ mean_score : num  4.67 18 13 61 50.67 ...
##  $ total_score: num  14 54 39 183 152 109 208 296 384 215 ...
##  $ dist_cat   : Factor w/ 2 levels "small distance",..: 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 ...

Alternatively, if you want to transform several numeric variables into categorical variables without changing the labels, it is best to use the transform() function. We illustrate this function with the mpg data frame from the {ggplot2} package:

library(ggplot2)
mpg <- transform(mpg,
  cyl = factor(cyl),
  drv = factor(drv),
  fl = factor(fl),
  class = factor(class)
)

dat$dist_cat <- recode(dat$dist_cat,
  "small distance" = "short distance",
  "big distance" = "large distance"
)

head(dat)

##   speed dist speed_dist  speed_cat speed_quali mean_score total_score
## 1     4    2          8  low speed      [0,12)   4.666667          14
## 2     4   10         40  low speed      [0,12)  18.000000          54
## 3     7    4         28  low speed      [0,12)  13.000000          39
## 4     7   22        154  low speed      [0,12)  61.000000         183
## 5     8   16        128 high speed      [0,12)  50.666667         152
## 6     9   10         90 high speed      [0,12)  36.333333         109
##         dist_cat
## 1 short distance
## 2 short distance
## 3 short distance
## 4 large distance
## 5 large distance
## 6 short distance

levels(dat$dist_cat)

## [1] "short distance" "large distance"

dat$dist_cat <- relevel(dat$dist_cat, ref = "large distance")

levels(dat$dist_cat)

## [1] "large distance" "short distance"

Rename variable names

To rename variable names as follows:

• dist \(\rightarrow\) distance
• speed_dist \(\rightarrow\) speed_distance
• dist_cat \(\rightarrow\) distance_cat

use the rename() command from the dplyr package:

dat <- rename(dat,
  distance = dist,
  speed_distance = speed_dist,
  distance_cat = dist_cat
)

names(dat) # display variable names

## [1] "speed"          "distance"       "speed_distance" "speed_cat"     
## [5] "speed_quali"    "mean_score"     "total_score"    "distance_cat"

Create a data frame manually

Although most analyses are performed on an imported data frame, it is also possible to create a data frame directly in R:

# Create the data frame named dat with 2 variables
dat <- data.frame(
  "variable1" = c(6, 12, NA, 3), # presence of 1 missing value (NA)
  "variable2" = c(3, 7, 9, 1)
)

# Print the data frame
dat

##   variable1 variable2
## 1         6         3
## 2        12         7
## 3        NA         9
## 4         3         1

Merging two data frames

By default, the merge is done on the common variables (variables that have the same name). However, if they do not have the same name, it is still possible to merge the two data frames by specifying their names:

dat1 <- data.frame(
  person = c(1:4),
  treatment = c("T1", "T2")
)

dat1

##   person treatment
## 1      1        T1
## 2      2        T2
## 3      3        T1
## 4      4        T2

dat2 <- data.frame(
  patient = c(1:4),
  age = c(56, 23, 32, 19),
  gender = c("M", "F", "F", "M")
)

dat2

##   patient age gender
## 1       1  56      M
## 2       2  23      F
## 3       3  32      F
## 4       4  19      M

We want to merge the two data frames by the subject number, but this number is referred as person in the first data frame and patient in the second data frame, so we need to indicate it:

merge(
  x = dat1, y = dat2,
  by.x = "person", by.y = "patient",
  all = TRUE
)

##   person treatment age gender
## 1      1        T1  56      M
## 2      2        T2  23      F
## 3      3        T1  32      F
## 4      4        T2  19      M

Add new observations from another data frame

In order to add new observations from another data frame, the two data frames need to have the same column names (but they can be in a different order):

dat1

##   person treatment
## 1      1        T1
## 2      2        T2
## 3      3        T1
## 4      4        T2

dat3 <- data.frame(
  person = 5:8,
  treatment = c("T3")
)

dat3

##   person treatment
## 1      5        T3
## 2      6        T3
## 3      7        T3
## 4      8        T3

rbind(dat1, dat3) # r stands for row, so we bind data frames by row

##   person treatment
## 1      1        T1
## 2      2        T2
## 3      3        T1
## 4      4        T2
## 5      5        T3
## 6      6        T3
## 7      7        T3
## 8      8        T3

As you can see, data for persons 5 to 8 have been added at the end of the data frame dat1 (because dat1 comes before dat3 in the rbind() function).

Add new variables from another data frame

It is also possible to add new variables to a data frame with the cbind() function. Unlike rbind(), column names do not have to be the same since they are added next to each other:

dat2

##   patient age gender
## 1       1  56      M
## 2       2  23      F
## 3       3  32      F
## 4       4  19      M

dat3

##   person treatment
## 1      5        T3
## 2      6        T3
## 3      7        T3
## 4      8        T3

cbind(dat2, dat3) # c stands for column, so we bind data frames by column

##   patient age gender person treatment
## 1       1  56      M      5        T3
## 2       2  23      F      6        T3
## 3       3  32      F      7        T3
## 4       4  19      M      8        T3

If you want to add only a specific variable from another data frame:

dat_cbind <- cbind(dat2, dat3$treatment)

dat_cbind

##   patient age gender dat3$treatment
## 1       1  56      M             T3
## 2       2  23      F             T3
## 3       3  32      F             T3
## 4       4  19      M             T3

names(dat_cbind)[4] <- "treatment"

dat_cbind

##   patient age gender treatment
## 1       1  56      M        T3
## 2       2  23      F        T3
## 3       3  32      F        T3
## 4       4  19      M        T3

or more simply with the data.frame() function:

data.frame(dat2,
  treatment = dat3$treatment
)

##   patient age gender treatment
## 1       1  56      M        T3
## 2       2  23      F        T3
## 3       3  32      F        T3
## 4       4  19      M        T3

Remove NAs

A simple solution is to remove all observations (i.e., rows) containing at least one missing value. This is done by keeping only observations with complete cases:

dat_complete <- dat[complete.cases(dat), ]
dat_complete

##   variable1 variable2
## 1         6         3
## 2        12         7
## 4         3         1

Be careful when removing observations with missing values, especially if missing values are not “missing at random”. It is not because it is possible (and easy) to remove them, that you should do it in all cases. This is, however, beyond the scope of the present article.

Impute NAs

Instead of removing observations with at least one NA, it is possible to impute them, that is, replace them by some values such as the median or the mode of the variable. This can be done easily with the command impute() from the package Hmisc:

library(Hmisc)

# impute NA with default method (median/mode)
variable1 <- impute(dat$variable1)

# create data frame with imputed data
dat_imputed <- data.frame(variable1,
  variable2 = dat$variable2
)

dat_imputed

##   variable1 variable2
## 1         6         3
## 2        12         7
## 3         6         9
## 4         3         1

When the median/mode method is used (the default), character vectors and factors are imputed with the mode. Numeric and integer vectors are imputed with the median. Again, use imputations carefully. Other packages offer more advanced imputation techniques. However, we keep it simple and straightforward for this article as advanced imputations is beyond the scope of introductory data manipulations in R.

Dates

In R the default date format follows the rules of the ISO 8601 international standard which expresses a day as “2001-02-13” (yyyy-mm-dd).²

Date can be defined by a string of characters or a number. For example, October 1st, 2016:

as.Date("01/10/16", format = "%d/%m/%y")

## [1] "2016-10-01"

as.Date(274, origin = "2016-01-01") # there are 274 days between the origin and October 1st, 2016

## [1] "2016-10-01"

Times

An example with date and time vectors:

dates <- c("02/27/92", "02/27/99", "01/14/92")
times <- c("23:03:20", "22:29:56", "01:03:30")

x <- paste(dates, times)
x

## [1] "02/27/92 23:03:20" "02/27/99 22:29:56" "01/14/92 01:03:30"

strptime(x,
  format = "%m/%d/%y %H:%M:%S"
)

## [1] "1992-02-27 23:03:20 CET" "1999-02-27 22:29:56 CET"
## [3] "1992-01-14 01:03:30 CET"

Find more information on how to express a date and time format with help(strptime).

Extraction from dates

We can extract:

• weekdays
• months
• quarters
• years

y <- strptime(x,
  format = "%m/%d/%y %H:%M:%S"
)

y

## [1] "1992-02-27 23:03:20 CET" "1999-02-27 22:29:56 CET"
## [3] "1992-01-14 01:03:30 CET"

weekdays(y, abbreviate = FALSE)

## [1] "Thursday" "Saturday" "Tuesday"

months(y, abbreviate = FALSE)

## [1] "February" "February" "January"

quarters(y, abbreviate = FALSE)

## [1] "Q1" "Q1" "Q1"

format(y, "%Y") # 4-digit year

## [1] "1992" "1999" "1992"

format(y, "%y") # 2-digit year

## [1] "92" "99" "92"